Who invented nuclear technologies

Nuclear technologies provide images inside the human body and can help to treat disease. For example, nuclear research has allowed doctors to predict precisely the amount of radiation required to kill cancer tumors without damaging healthy cells. Hospitals sterilize medical equipment with gamma rays safely and inexpensively. Items sterilized by radiation include syringes, burn dressings, surgical gloves and heart valves.

Nuclear technology makes deep space exploration possible. The generators in unmanned spacecraft use the heat from plutonium to generate electricity and can operate unattended for years. This reliable, long-term source of electricity powers these spacecraft, even as they venture deep into space.

The Nuclear Energy Institute notes that Voyager 1, which was launched in to study the outer solar system, is still transmitting data today.

Nuclear technology can play an important role in overcoming this challenge. Water desalination is the process of removing salt from saltwater to make the water drinkable. The huge resources of the USA were then applied without reservation to developing atomic bombs. The Americans increased their effort rapidly and soon outstripped the British.

Research continued in each country with some exchange of information. Several of the key British scientists visited the USA early in and were given full access to all of the information available. The Americans were pursuing three enrichment processes in parallel: Professor Lawrence was studying electromagnetic separation at Berkeley University of California , E.

Murphree of Standard Oil was studying the centrifuge method developed by Professor Beams, and Professor Urey was coordinating the gaseous diffusion work at Columbia University. Responsibility for building a reactor to produce fissile plutonium was given to Arthur Compton at the University of Chicago. The British were only examining gaseous diffusion.

In June the US Army took over process development, engineering design, procurement of materials and site selection for pilot plants for four methods of making fissionable material because none of the four had been shown to be clearly superior at that point as well as the production of heavy water.

With this change, information flow to Britain dried up. This was a major setback to the British and the Canadians who had been collaborating on heavy water production and on several aspects of the research program. Thereafter, Churchill sought information on the cost of building a diffusion plant, a heavy water plant and an atomic reactor in Britain. After many months of negotiations an agreement was finally signed by Mr Churchill and President Roosevelt in Quebec in August , according to which the British handed over all of their reports to the Americans and in return received copies of General Groves' progress reports to the President.

Construction of production plants for electromagnetic separation in calutrons and gaseous diffusion was well under way. An experimental graphite pile constructed by Fermi had operated at the University of Chicago in December — the first controlled nuclear chain reaction.

A full-scale production reactor for plutonium was being constructed at Argonne, with further ones at Oak Ridge and then Hanford, plus a reprocessing plant to extract the plutonium. Four plants for heavy water production were being built, one in Canada and three in the USA.

The outcome of the huge effort, with assistance from the British teams, was that sufficient Pu and highly enriched U from calutrons and diffusion at Oak Ridge was produced by mid The uranium mostly originated from the Belgian Congo. The first atomic device tested successfully at Alamagordo in New Mexico on 16 July It used plutonium made in a nuclear pile. The teams did not consider that it was necessary to test a simpler U device. The first atomic bomb, which contained U, was dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August The second bomb, containing Pu, was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August.

On 10 August the Japanese Government surrendered. Initially Stalin was not enthusiastic about diverting resources to develop an atomic bomb, until intelligence reports suggested that such research was under way in Germany, Britain and the USA. Consultations with Academicians Ioffe, Kapitsa, Khlopin and Vernadsky convinced him that a bomb could be developed relatively quickly and he initiated a modest research program in Igor Kurchatov, then relatively young and unknown, was chosen to head it and in he became Director of Laboratory No.

Overall responsibility for the bomb program rested with Security Chief Lavrenti Beria and its administration was undertaken by the First Main Directorate later called the Ministry of Medium Machine Building. Research had three main aims: to achieve a controlled chain reaction; to investigate methods of isotope separation; and to look at designs for both enriched uranium and plutonium bombs. Attempts were made to initiate a chain reaction using two different types of atomic pile: one with graphite as a moderator and the other with heavy water.

Three possible methods of isotope separation were studied: counter-current thermal diffusion, gaseous diffusion and electromagnetic separation. After the defeat of Nazi Germany in May , German scientists were "recruited" to the bomb program to work in particular on isotope separation to produce enriched uranium. This included research into gas centrifuge technology in addition to the three other enrichment technologies.

The test of the first US atomic bomb in July had little impact on the Soviet effort, but by this time, Kurchatov was making good progress towards both a uranium and a plutonium bomb. He had begun to design an industrial scale reactor for the production of plutonium, while those scientists working on uranium isotope separation were making advances with the gaseous diffusion method.

It was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the following month which gave the program a high profile and construction began in November of a new city in the Urals which would house the first plutonium production reactors -- Chelyabinsk Later known as Chelyabinsk or the Mayak production association.

This was the first of ten secret nuclear cities to be built in the Soviet Union. The first of five reactors at Chelyabinsk came on line in This town also housed a processing plant for extracting plutonium from irradiated uranium. As for uranium enrichment technology, it was decided in late to begin construction of the first gaseous diffusion plant at Verkh-Neyvinsk later the closed city of Sverdlovsk , some 50 kilometres from Yekaterinburg formerly Sverdlovsk in the Urals.

Support was provided by a group of German scientists working at the Sukhumi Physical Technical Institute. In April design work on the bomb was shifted to Design Bureau — a new centre at Sarova some kilometres from Moscow subsequently the closed city of Arzamas More specialists were brought in to the program including metallurgist Yefim Slavsky who was given the immediate task of producing the very pure graphite Kurchatov needed for his plutonium production pile constructed at Laboratory No.

The pile was operated for the first time in December Support was also given by Laboratory No. Work at Arzamas was influenced by foreign intelligence gathering and the first device was based closely on the Nagasaki bomb a plutonium device. In August a test site was established near Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan and was ready for the detonation two years later of the first bomb, RSD Even before this was tested in August , another group of scientists led by Igor Tamm and including Andrei Sakharov had begun work on a hydrogen bomb.

By the end of World War II, the project predicted and described in detail only five and a half years before in the Frisch-Peierls Memorandum had been brought to partial fruition, and attention could turn to the peaceful and directly beneficial application of nuclear energy. Post-war, weapons development continued on both sides of the "iron curtain", but a new focus was on harnessing the great atomic power, now dramatically if tragically demonstrated, for making steam and electricity.

In the course of developing nuclear weapons the Soviet Union and the West had acquired a range of new technologies and scientists realised that the tremendous heat produced in the process could be tapped either for direct use or for generating electricity.

It was also clear that this new form of energy would allow development of compact long-lasting power sources which could have various applications, not least for shipping, and especially in submarines. The reactor started up in December In President Eisenhower proposed his "Atoms for Peace" program, which reoriented significant research effort towards electricity generation and set the course for civil nuclear energy development in the USA.

In the Soviet Union, work was under way at various centres to refine existing reactor designs and develop new ones. The existing graphite-moderated channel-type plutonium production reactor was modified for heat and electricity generation and in June the world's first nuclear powered electricity generator began operation at the FEI in Obninsk. It was similar in principle to the plutonium production reactors in the closed military cities and served as a prototype for other graphite channel reactor designs including the Chernobyl-type RBMK reaktor bolshoi moshchnosty kanalny — high power channel reactor reactors.

AM-1 produced electricity until and was used until as a research facility and for the production of isotopes. In April the BR-1 bystry reaktor — fast reactor fast neutron reactor began operating. It produced no power but led directly to the BR-5, which started up in with a capacity of 5 MWt, and which was used to do the basic research necessary for designing sodium-cooled FBRs. It was upgraded and modernised in and then underwent major reconstruction in to become the BR with a capacity of 8 MWt which is now used to investigate fuel endurance, to study materials and to produce isotopes.

The PWR used enriched uranium oxide fuel and was moderated and cooled by ordinary light water. The Mark 1 prototype naval reactor started up in March in Idaho, and the first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus , was launched in Since the USA had a virtual monopoly on uranium enrichment in the West, British development took a different tack and resulted in a series of reactors fuelled by natural uranium metal, moderated by graphite, and gas-cooled.

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